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1 Definitions of conceptual metaphor

Gentner (1988) divides metaphors into four partially overlapping categories: attributional metaphors, relational metaphors, double metaphors and complex metaphors.

According to Kövecses (2002) a conceptual metaphor consists of a target domain and a source domain. The target domain is understood in terms of the source domain. We use such metaphors when we talk and think about life in terms of journeys, about arguments in terms of war, about ideas in terms of food, etc. He states that we must be aware of the fact that conceptual metaphor and metaphorical linguistic expressions are two different phenomena. For example, all the metaphorical linguistic expressions that have to do with life and journey are manifestation of one metaphor LIFE IS A JOURNEY.

A Glossary of Cognitive Linguistics (2007) describes the Conceptual Metaphor Theory first presented by Lakoff and Johnson in 1980. According to this theory, metaphor is not only a stylistic language feature but that thought is also metaphorical in nature. Conceptual structure is organized by correspondences between conceptual domains.

According to Romero and Soria (2005), the essence of metaphorical concepts is understanding or experiencing one kind of thing or experience in terms of another. They suggest that a metaphoric utterance is identified when the speaker perceives a contextual abnormality and a conceptual contrast. This utterance is interpreted when we use a process of mapping to derive subpropositional metaphoric provisional meanings.

Teng (2005) argues that conceptual metaphors can be directly realized in the coupling of the external settings. These settings frame and sustain peoples' activities.

Holme(2004) claims that conceptual metaphors are not examples of a use of language in text but they are means of our conceptualizing or grasping of abstract topics such as 'time' or 'love'. They show the way we structure our reality.

According to Gentner and Wolff(2000) , metaphors are nonliteral comparisons which can be used both for explanatory-predictive purposes and in expressive-affective contexts.

2. Examples of conceptual metaphors

Kövecses (2002) states that a conceptual metaphor consists of two conceptual domains. The domains have special names. The source domain is the one from which we draw expressions to understand another conceptual domain. The domain that is understood this way is the target domain. Moreover, we have to distinguish conceptual metaphor from metaphorical linguistic expressions. The latter make explicit or are manifestations of conceptual metaphors. In the examples below, small capitals are used for the statement of conceptual metaphors and italics for metaphorical linguistic expressions.

AN ARGUMENT IS WAR

Your claims are indefensible.

He attacked every weak point in my argument.

His criticisms were right on target.

LOVE IS A JOURNEY

Look how far we've come.

We're at a croosroads.

It's been a long, bumpy road.

We've gotten off the track.

THEORIES ARE BUILDINGS

Is that the foundation for your theory?

We need to construct a strong argument for that.

So far we have put together only the framework of the theory.

IDEAS ARE FOOD

She devoured the book.

Let me stew over that for a while.

All this paper has in it are raw facts, half-baked ideas, and warmed-over theories.

These are just few examples of linguistic expressions used by speakers of English when talking about the target domains above. We can conclude that the linguistic expressions are manifestations of the conceptual metaphors. There is a certain regularity in the examples above - a more abstract concept is used in the target domain and a more concrete in the source domain. It is so because our experiences with the physical world help us comprehend more abstract domains.

3. Conceptual metaphor as a set of mappings

According to Kövecses (2002) mappings are conceptual correspondences between the source and the target domain. This means that constituent conceptual elements of the source domain correspond to those of the target domain.

Let us have a look at some examples where elements of the source domain are mapped onto elements of the target domain. Let us consider the conceptual metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY. In the sentence We aren't going anywhere the expression go anywhere indicates that we are travelling to a destination which is not clear. The word we stands for the travelers. There are three constituent elements of journeys in the sentence: the travelers, the travel (the journey) and the destination. However, we will interpret this sentence to be about love, and we will know that the speaker has in mind lovers, the events in a love relationship, and the goal(s) of the love relationship. Thanks these interpretations we may lay out a set of mappings between constituent elements of the source and of the target domain.

Source: JOURNEY Target: LOVE

the travelers => the lovers

the vehicle => the love relationship itself

the journey => events in the relationship

the distance covered => the progress made

the obstacles encountered => the difficulties experienced

decisions about which way to go => choices about what to do

the destination of the journey => the goal(s) of the relationship

4. Common source and target domains

It was shown that the source domains tend to be more concrete or physical and the target domains are fairly abstract. Here, the most frequent source and target domains will be presented. It will be shown which physical concepts are used most frequently to understand which abstact concepts.

4.1. Common source domains

The most frequent source domains will be mentioned below based on the Cobuild Metaphor Dictionary as well as from Kövecses' survey of metaphor research.

The Human Body

The parts of our body are an ideal source domain, because we know them well. The most frequently used parts are: the head, face, legs, hands, back, heart,bones,and shoulders. Here are some examples:

the heart of the problem

to shoulder a responsibility

the head of the department

Health and Illness

The general properties of health and illness as well as particular illnesses are used as source domains. Some examples follow:

a healthy society

a sick mind

She hurt my feelings.

Animals

The properties of animals are often used when we talk about someone being a brute, a tiger, a dog, a sly fox, and so on. However, the metaphors with the domain of animals are not only used to talk about human beings. The following example shows it clearly: "It will be a bitch to pull this boat out of the water." In this sentence, the term bitch stands for any difficult situation.

Plants

In metaphors with PLANTS source domain, we use various parts of plants, actions performed in relation to plants, and we are aware of many stages of growth of plants. Some examples follow:

a budding beauty

He cultivated his friendship with her.

the fruit of her labor

Exports flourished last year.

Buildings and Construction

The static object of a house and its parts as well as the act of building it are often used as thr source domain. Here are some examples:

a towering genius

He's in ruins financially.

She constructed a coherent argument.

Machines and Tools

Here are some examples of the machines, tools and the activities related to them used in metaphorical expressions:

the machine of democracy

conceptual tools

She produces a book every year.

Games and Sport

Here are some examples of the expressions in this group:

to toy with the idea

He tried to checkmate her.

He's a heavyweight politician.

Money and Economic Transactions (business)

We understand many abstract things using the vocabulary which is related to the money and economics. Some examples follow:

Spend your time wisely.

I tried to save some energy.

She invested a lot in the relationship.

Cooking and Food

The activity of cooking and the product serve as a very frequent source domain. Here are some examples:

What's your recipe for success?

That's a water-down idea.

He cooked up a story that nobody believed.

Heat and Cold

These metaphors are often used to talk about our attitude to people and things. Some examples follow:

in the heat of passion

a cold reception

an icy stare

a warm welcome

Light and Darkness

These are basic experiences of human beings. Here are some examples:

a dark mood

She brightened up.

I do not have the foggiest idea.

Forces

Many different forces are involved in this group: gravitational, magnetic, electric, mechanical, etc. They affect us in many ways. Here are some examples:

She swept me off my feet.

You're driving me nuts.

Don't push me!

I was overwhelmed.

Movement and Direction

Movement can be stationary or can involve a change of location. When a change of location occurs, then it is associated with direction. Some examples follow:

He went crazy.

She solved the problem step by step.

Inflation is soaring.

Our economy is galloping ahead.

4.2. Common target domains

Target domains are abstract and they lack clear delineation. This is why they "need" metaphorical conceptualization. The most common target domains are listed below.

Emotion

Such emotions as anger, fear,love,happiness, sadness, and so on are primarly understood when used in conceptual metaphors. Here are some examples:

She was deeply moved.

He was bursting with joy.

He unleashed his anger.

Desire

Desire is understood as a physical as well as physiological force. Some examples follow:

The jacket I saw in the shopwindow pulled me into the store.

She is hungry for knowledge.

I am starved for affection.

Morality

Such categories as good and bad,honesty, courage, sincerity, and their opposites are often comprehended by means of more concrete source concepts. Here are some examples:

I'll pay you back for this.

He's a shady character.

That was a lowly thing to do.

Thought

As the examples below show the rational thought is understood mostly as work or in terms of perception, such as seeing:

She's grinding out new ideas.

He hammered the point home.

I see your point.

Society / Nation

Metaphors are often used when talking about society and nation because of the complexity of these concepts. The most frequent source domains involve concepts of person, family, machines or the human body. Some examples follow:

What do we owe society?

neighboring countries

a friendly nation

the founding fathers of the country

the machinery of democracy

the functioning of society

the ills of society

Politics

Politics is often understood by means of a physical power, game and sport, business, and war.

They forced the opposition out of the House.

The president plays hardball.

There was a great deal of haggling over the issue.

The fight erupted over abortion.

Economy

The most commonly used source domains in this group are: building, plants and journey. Here are some examples:

Germany built a strong economy.

the growth of the economy

They pruned the budget.

China's economy is galloping ahead.

Human Relationships

Human relationships are understood in terms of plants, machines and buildings. Some examples below:

Their friendship is in full flower.

It's a budding relationship.

They had to work on their relationship.

They built a strong marriage.

Communication

The linguistic expressions in this group are comprehended as containers, objects and sending. It is shown by the examples:

You are putting too many ideas into a single sentence.

That's a dense paragraph.

She gave me a lot of information.

Time

The concept of time is understood in terms of an object that moves:

The time will come when ...

Christmas is coming up soon.

Time flies.

in the following week ...

Time goes by fast.

Life and Death

Life is understood as a journey to some destination. Life is associated with day, light, warmth, etc. Contrary to this, death is departure, night, darkness and cold.

The baby will arrive soon.

Grandpa is gone.

His father passed away.

Religion

This group of metaphors involves our view of God and our relationship to God. God is viewed as a person: Father, Sheperd, King, and so on.

Events and Actions

Aspects of events and actions are often viewed as movement and force. Some examples below:

He went crazy.

She turned thirty last month.

You're driving me nuts.

The goal sent the crowd into a frenzy.

She has reached her goals in life.

5. Kinds of conceptual metaphors

5.1. Orientational metaphors

These metaphors structure concepts linearly, analogical to nonmetaphorical linear orientations (Lakoff and Johnson,1980b).

According to Lakoff and Johnson(1980), orientational metaphors have to do mostly with spatial orientation: up-down, in-out, front-back, on-off, deep-shallow, central-peripheral. This is a kind of metaphorical concept which organizes a whole system of concepts with respect to one another. Here are some examples of orientational metaphors:

HAPPY IS UP; SAD IS DOWN

I'm feeling up. You're in high spirits. He's really low these days.

CONSCIOUS IS UP; UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN

Get up. Wake up. He fell asleep. He sank into a coma.

HEALTH AND LIFE ARE UP; SICKNESS AND DEATH ARE DOWN

He's at the peak of health. He fell ill. He dropped dead.

MORE IS UP; LESS IS DOWN

His draft number is high. My income rose last year. The number of errors he made is incredibly low.

GOOD IS UP; BAD IS DOWN

Things are looking up. We hit a peak last year, but it's been downhill ever since. He does high-quality work.

5.2. Ontological metaphors

Lakoff and Johnson (1980) state that ontological metaphors are based on our experiences with physical objects (especially our own bodies). They are used to understand events, activities, emotions,ideas, etc. as entities and substances. Here are some examples:

INFLATION IS AN ENTITY

Inflation is lowering our standard of living.

We need to combat inflation.

Inflation makes me sick.

Referring

My fear of insects is driving my wife crazy.

We are working toward peace.

The honour of our country is at stake in this war.

Quantifying

It will take a lot of patience to finish this book.

There is so much hatred in this world.

Identifying Aspects

I can't keep up with the pace of modern life. His emotional health has deteriorated recently.

Identifying Causes

The pressure of his responsibilities caused his breakdown. He did it out of anger.

Setting Goals and Motivating Actions

He went to New York to seek fame and fortune. The FBI will act quickly in the face of a threat to national security.

Most of the expressions listed above are not viewed as metaphorical. It is so because they serve a very limited range of purposes. Nevertheless, ontological metaphors may be further developed in detail. A good example is the ontological metaphor THE MIND IS AN ENTITY:

THE MIND IS A MACHINE

We're still trying to grind out the solution to this question. My mind just isn't operating today. I'm a little rusty today.

THE MIND IS A BRITTLE OBJECT

Her ego is very fragile. She is easily crushed. I'm going to pieces.

Different kinds of objects are described in these two metaphors. This allows us to concentrate on two different aspects of mental experience. According to the MACHINE metaphor we get the concept of the mind as having an on-off state, a level of efficiency, a productive capacity, an operating condition, etc. Contrary to the MACHINE metaphor, the BRITTLE OBJECT metaphor has not so many descriptions. It allows us to describe only the psychological strength.

5.3. Structural metaphors

Kövecses(2002) claims that the function of the structural metaphors is to enable speakers to understand a target domain by means of the structure of a source domain. This understanding is possible because of conceptual mappings between elements of the target domain and elements of the source domain.

The concept of time is structured according to motion and space. When we use TIME IS MOTION metaphor we understand time in terms of some basic elements: physical objects, their locations, and their motion. We may understand time in this way because the present time as well as a canonical observer are at the same location.

Moreover, we may find in this metaphor the following mappings: times are things; the passing of time is motion; the future is in front of the observer, the past is behind the observer; one thing is moving, the other is stationary; the stationary thing is the deictic center.

Our notion of time is structured by these mappings in a clear way. There are two special cases of the TIME IS MOTION conceptual metaphor in English: TIME PASSING IS MOTION OF AN OBJECT and TIME PASSING IS AN OBSERVER'S MOTION OVER A LANDSCAPE. Some examples follow:

TIME PASSING IS MOTION OF AN OBJECT

The time will come when...

The time has long since gone when...

The time for action has arrived.

I'm looking ahead to Christmas.

TIME PASSSING IS AN OBSERVER'S MOTION OVER A LANDSCAPE

There's going to be trouble along the road.

His stay in Russia extended over many years.

We're getting close to Christmas.

The mappings from the TIME IS MOTION metaphor explain why the particular expressions mean what they do. They also provide a basic structure for our notion of time. It is an example of how most structural metaphors provide structuring and understanding for their target concepts.

6. Metaphor and metonymy

Deignan (2005) argues that there is a cline from metonymy through to metaphor. The best known examlpes of metonymy are uses as ham sandwich in sentences like "The ham sandwich is sitting at table 20" used by waiters to refer to a customer who has ordered a ham sandwich. Other examples are the words like university and auction house when they stand for the people who work in those institutions. One of the most important differences between metonymy and metaphors is that a metaphor involves mapping between domains and metonymy is an intradomain phenomenon.

Gibbs(1994) claims that the general principle of metonymy is the use of one well-understood aspect of something to stand for the thing as a whole or for some other aspect of it. We use conventional metonymic models in ordinary discourse, when we conceptualize AN OBJECT USED FOR THE USER (We need a better glove at third base.), THE PLACE FOR THE EVENT (Watergate changed our politics.),etc. According to Gibbs, metaphor and metonymy are two major ways of conceptualization of people's experience.

Kövecses (2002) states that in metonymy we use one entity or thing to provide mental access to another entity. Most metonymic expressions, similar to metaphors, are not isolated but come in larger groups taht is characterized by a specific relationship between one kind of entity and another kind of entity. Here are some examples of conceptual relationships between kinds of entities. The particular relationships are stated in small capitals:

THE PRODUCER FOR THE PRODUCT (THE AUTHOR FOR THE WORK)

I'm reading Shakespeare.

She loves Picasso.

THE PLACE FOR THE EVENT

America doesn't want another Pearl Harbor.

Watergate changed our politics.

THE PLACE FOR THE INSTITUTION

Washington is negotiating with Moscow.

Hollywood is putting out terrible movies.

Lakoff and Johnson (1980) claim that these metonymic expressions are systematic in the same way as the metaphoric concepts are. They state that metonymic concepts allow us to conceptualize one thing in terms of another thing. The concepts structure not only our language but also our thoughts, attitudes and actions.

7. Metaphor and idioms

Kövecses(2002) claims that most traditional views of idioms agree that idioms consist of two or more lexical items and that we cannot predict the overall meaning of these words from the constituent words. According to the traditional view, idioms have certain syntactic properties and a special meaning. He suggests that the traditional view is mistaken. An idiom is not just an expression with a special meaning in relation to the meanings of its constituting words, but it is conceptual in nature. The meanings of idioms can be regarded as motivated and not arbitrary. He states that the class of linguistic expressions called idioms is a mixed bag which involves metaphors (spill the beans), metonymies (throw up one's hands), pairs of words (cats and dogs), idioms with it (live it up), similes (as easy as pie), sayings (a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush), phrasal verbs (come up, as in "Christmas is coming up"), grammatical idioms (let alone), and others. Furthermore, Kövecses suggests that idioms are based on metaphors. In the expression "The fire between them finally went out," the conceptual metaphor underlying the idiom is LOVE IS FIRE; in "The painting set fire to the composer's imagination," it is IMAGINATION IS FIRE. Kövecses states that the target domain of the conceptual metaphor determines the general meaning of an idiom.

Ortony et al.(1978) claims that most idioms are not "frozen" metaphors. The idiomatic meaning cannot be figured out, if it is not known. Idioms are examples of frozen metonymy coming from specialized local customs or habits.

CHAPTER II LOVE AS A TARGET DOMAIN IN CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS

INTRODUCTION

Conceptual metaphors have been analysed in the first chapter of this paper. They have been divided into specific groups such as structural, orientational and ontological metaphors. It also has been stated that conceptual metaphors consist of two domains which are called the target and the source domain. Furthermore, the common target and source domains have been listed and shortly explained.

In this chapter, the concept of "love" as the target domain will be analysed. First, the most common conceptual metaphors with the target domain "love" will be presented. Finally, the examples from two literary works: "Wuthering heights" and "Emma" will be presented. There will be made an attempt to divide the linguistic expressions into separate groups of conceptual metaphors accordingly to different source domains.

1 Conceptual metaphors with the target domain "love"

Kövecses (2000) gives a list of the most common conceptual metaphors with the concept of "love" as a target domain:

LOVE IS A NUTRIENT

LOVE IS A JOURNEY

LOVE IS A UNITY OF PARTS

LOVE IS A BOND

LOVE IS A FLUID IN A CONTAINER

LOVE IS FIRE

LOVE IS AN ECONOMIC EXCHANGE

LOVE IS A NATURAL FORCE

LOVE IS A PHYSICAL FORCE

LOVE IS AN OPPONENT

LOVE IS A CAPTIVE ANIMAL

LOVE IS WAR

LOVE IS INSANITY

LOVE IS A SOCIAL SUPERIOR

LOVE IS RAPTURE / A HIGH

THE OBJECT OF LOVE IS A SMALL CHILD

THE OBJECT OF LOVE IS A DEITY

The conceptual metaphors are illustrated with linguistic expressions:

LOVE IS A NUTRIENT: I am starved for love.

LOVE IS A JOURNEY: It's been a long, bumpy road.

LOVE IS A UNITY OF PARTS: We're as one.

LOVE IS A BOND: There is a close tie between them.

The examples above make it clear that we have to distinguish conceptual metaphor from metaphorical linguistic expressions. The latter are manifestations of a specific conceptual metaphor.

According to Kövecses (2000), there are many emotion concepts related to love, such as liking, sexual desire, intimacy, longing, affection, caring, respect, and friendship.

Tissari (2006) categorises the instances of the word love, verb and noun, according to their participants. At least one of the participants experiences love and one is target/cause(r)/object of love. The definitions of the kinds of love are listed below:

(1) The participants of love are members of the same family.

(2) The participants of love are spouses.

(3) The participants of love are (potential) lovers.

(4) The participants of love are friends.

(5) The participants of religious love.

(6) At least one of the participants is non-human (animal or inanimate)

Furthermore, Tissari (2006) analyses the common conceptual metaphors with love as a target domain. She claims that the metaphor LOVE IS CONTAINER may come from the fact that people imagine, for example, that the womb is a safe place for a baby and that people miss that kind of safety. The linguistic expressions to be in love and to be out of love are to illustrate that metaphor. Another example is LOVE IS A PLANT metaphor. Tissari claims that the theme of love as the beloved person corresponds with the image of A PLANT. Here is the expression the bud of love from Shakespeare to illustrate the metaphor. Tissari states that metaphors such as LOVE IS FIRE, LOVE IS NUTRIENT, LOVE IS MADNESS, LOVE IS BITTERNESS AND LOVE IS MELANCHOLY may relate to the doctrine of bodily humours which says that the emotions are contained in the human body. LOVE IS ENTITY is an example of an ontological metaphor. Sometimes the nature of the entity seems to be unspecific as in the expression: It shows but little love or jugdement in him. When we have the idea of love as an object which is sought and can be found, we have to do with LOVE IS A HIDDEN OBJECT metaphor. The expression from Shakespeare to illustrate this metaphor: 'Honey, you shall be well desired in Cyprus, I have found love amongst them. Another example of 'love' metaphors is LOVE IS A CAPTIVE ANIMAL. In the next expression, the animal which could be captured stands for another person's emotion. Here is the example: 'Her love is not the hare that I do hunt.'

Moreover, Tissari analysed the frequency of the 'love' metaphors in Shakespeare's plays. On the top was the metaphor LOVE IS A VALUABLE COMMODITY, followed by LOVE IS A NATURAL/PHYSICAL FORCE.

Aksan and Kantar (2008) categorize Turkish love metaphors using the conceptual models which were introduced by Lakoff and Johnson, and Kövecses. The conceptualizations of love in Turkish often differ from the love concepts in English. For instance, the Turkish LOVE IS A JOURNEY metaphor sees love as an endless, uncertain and arduous endeavour. In English the LOVE IS A JOURNEY metaphor denotes something active, goal-oriented and success-oriented. This results from the cultural differences. Another example is the LOVE IS AN ECONOMIC EXCHANGE metaphor. For an English speaker, the metaphor implies cost-benefit calculations and the maximization of "gain to self". Here are some typical expressions:

"She's invested a lot in that relationship."

"She rewarded his love by taking care of him."

"What am I getting out of this relationship, anyway?"

"He received a lot of love from her."

These expressions do not have any acceptable equivalents in Turkish, because "selflessness" is the norm in Turkish when talking about any love relationship. It is not important how much you gain, but how much you can give to your partner.

Askan and Kantar come to the conclusion that many source domains that are used by Turkish and English speakers to conceptualize love are the same. However, different cultural models may influence the selection of linguistic expressions related to the emotional experience of love.

Glynn (2002) integrates in his article grammatical analysis into the study of conceptual metaphors. He claims that the lexical approaches of Lakoff (1987), Johnson (1987), and Kövecses (1986) are insufficient to offer complete analysis of cross-reference mapping. Glynn examines conceptual metaphors from the grammatical perspective. He focuses on two emotion concepts: ROMANTIC LOVE and ANGER. Dylan analyses the conceptual metaphors with the target domain LOVE focusing not only on the lexical, but also on the grammatical structure of the metaphors. His study shows that the structure of conceptual metaphors is more complex than is evident from the lexical perspective. Dylan suggests that the invariance hypothesis, proposed by Lakoff (1993) and Turner (1993), may be insufficient. Moreover, he claims that there is a need to integrate the grammatical analyses into the study of cognitive semantics.

2 Love metaphors in literary works

The aim of this part is to find in two novels the linguistic expressions that underlie any kind of love metaphors. Then, an attempt will be taken to categorize the expressions according to different source domains in the conceptual metaphors.

2.1 The list of the common conceptual metaphors with love as a target domain

Here is the list of the most common conceptual metaphors, extracted from Kövecses (2000) and Tissari (2006):

LOVE IS A NUTRIENT

LOVE IS A JOURNEY

LOVE IS A UNITY OF PARTS

LOVE IS A BOND

LOVE IS A FLUID IN A CONTAINER

LOVE IS FIRE

LOVE IS A VALUABLE COMMODITY (IN AN ECONOMIC EXCHANGE)

LOVE IS A NATURAL/PHYSICAL FORCE

LOVE IS AN OPPONENT

LOVE IS A CAPTIVE ANIMAL

LOVE IS WAR

LOVE IS INSANITY

LOVE IS A SOCIAL SUPERIOR

LOVE IS RAPTURE / A HIGH

THE OBJECT OF LOVE IS A SMALL CHILD

THE OBJECT OF LOVE IS A DEITY

LOVE IS BLIND(NESS)

LOVE IS A COLLABORATIVE WORK OF ART

LOVE IS A CONTAINER

LOVE IS AN ENTITY

LOVE IS A GAME

LOVE IS A HEAT

LOVE IS A HIDDEN OBJECT

LOVE IS MAGIC

LOVE IS A PATIENT

LOVE IS A PLANT

In the following part of this chapter there will be taken an attempt to find linguistic expressions, related to love, in the literary works and match them with a underlying love metaphor from the list above. However, some problems may arise, because of the fact that some metaphors may overlap, as it is in case of: LOVE IS FIRE and LOVE IS A HEAT, or LOVE IS AN ENTITY and LOVE IS A HIDDEN OBJECT. It may also occur that there is no such a metaphor in the list which could be matched with a particular linguistic expression. If it is the case, it will be attemted to name such a metaphor.

2.2 Love metaphors in "Wuthering Heights" and "Emma"

One of the major problems that arose when searching for the examples of love metaphors, was the fact that the lingusitic expressions manifesting these metaphors do not have to include the word love. Therefore, it was necessary to read almost every sentence from the both novels. Knowing the context was another important factor in deciding whether it was a love metaphor or not.

Here are the examlpes of the LOVE IS A JOURNEY metaphor:

but both their

minds tending to the same point - one loving and desiring

to esteem, and the other loving and desiring to be

esteemed - they contrived in the end to reach it.(p.506)journey w

It is a

sort of prologue to the play, a motto to the chapter; and

will be soon followed by matter-of-fact prose.’(p.112)journey,play e

There does seem to be a something in

the air of Hartfield which gives love exactly the right

direction, and sends it into the very channel where it

ought to flow.(p.113)journey, river e

She was his object, and every

body must perceive it. She introduced him to her friend (p.333)journey e

‘Oh! no—there is nothing to surprize one at all.—A

pretty fortune; and she came in his way.’ (p.410)journey e

That Emma was his object appeared

indisputable. Every thing declared it; (p.523)journey e

The examples of LOVE IS UNITY OF PARTS metaphor:

He had room in his heart only for two idols - his

wife and himself: he doted on both, and adored one, and I

couldn’t conceive how he would bear the loss.(p.100)part of body, unity of parts, bond w

‘Who is to separate us, pray?(p.128)bond, unity of parts w

He’s always, always in

my mind: not as a pleasure, any more than I am always a

pleasure to myself, but as my own being.(p.130)blind, insanity, unity of parts w

I only wish us never to be parted: and should a

word of mine distress you hereafter, think I feel the same

distress underground, and for my own sake, forgive me!(p.256)unity w

Because misery and

degradation, and death, and nothing that God or Satan

could inflict would have parted us, YOU, of your own (p.258)bond, unity w

The crown of all my wishes will be the union of those

two. I shall envy no one on their wedding(p.506)unity w

Mr. Knightley and Harriet Smith!—It was a union to

distance every wonder of the kind.— (p.633)unity e

The examples of the LOVE IS A BOND metaphor:

He had room in his heart only for two idols - his

wife and himself: he doted on both, and adored one, and I

couldn’t conceive how he would bear the loss.(p.100)part of body, unity of parts, bond w

‘Who is to separate us, pray?(p.128)bond, unity of parts w

it

would dissolve all bonds of relationship between herself

and him.(p.190)bond w

Because misery and

degradation, and death, and nothing that God or Satan

could inflict would have parted us, YOU, of your own (p.258)bond, unity w

The attachment of

Frank Churchill and Jane Fairfax became commonplace,

threadbare, stale in the comparison, exciting no surprize,

presenting no disparity, affording nothing to be said or (p.633)bond e

The examples of the LOVE IS FIRE metaphor:

He has extinguished my love effectually, and so

I’m at my ease. I can recollect yet how I loved him; and(p.276)fire w

She

supported him calmly, in appearance; and he fixed on her

features his raised eyes that seemed dilating with ecstasy.(p.454)fire, a high, heat w

The examples of the LOVE IS A VALUABLE COMMODITY (IN AN ECONOMIC EXCHANGE) metaphor:

I’ve no more business to marry Edgar Linton

than I have to be in heaven;(p.127)economical exchange w

old—how she had devoted all her powers to attach and

amuse her in health—and how nursed her through the

various illnesses of childhood. A large debt of gratitude(p.5)?exchange e

Harriet would be loved as one to whom she

could be useful. . (p.36)exchange e

this will

bring a great increase of love on each side. I should not(p.133)entity, valuable commodity e

The examples of the LOVE IS A NATURAL/PHYSICAL FORCE metaphor:

And, perhaps, not quite awake to what

he did, but attracted like a child to a candle, at last he

proceeded from staring to touching; he put out his hand

and stroked one curl, as gently as if it were a bird.(p.474)natural/physical force w

Your love will

make him an outcast and a beggar. Nelly, take her; and

leave me, all of you! Leave me!’(p.513)force w

Emma watched her through the fluctuations of this

speech, and saw no alarming symptoms of love(p.43)natural force e

The examples of the LOVE IS AN OPPONENT metaphor:

But I think he’s

safe from HER love. I’ll pit him against that paltry(p.348)opponent w

The examples of the LOVE IS WAR metaphor:

You fight against that

devil for love as long as you may; when the time comes,

not all the angels in heaven shall save him!’(p.224)war w

but the girl who could be gratified by a Robert

Martin’s riding about the country to get walnuts for her

might very well be conquered by Mr. Elton’s admiration.(p.50)war

The examples of the LOVE IS INSANITY metaphor:

if looks

have language, the merest idiot might have guessed I was

over head and ears: she understood me at last, and looked

a return (p.7)fire, insanity, rapture w

’I love the ground under his feet, and the air over his

head, and everything he touches, and every word he says.(p.123)blind,insanity w

He’s always, always in

my mind: not as a pleasure, any more than I am always a

pleasure to myself, but as my own being.(p.130)blind, insanity, unity of parts w

You know I

was wild after she died; and eternally, from dawn to dawn,(p.462)insanity w

That, however, which you may suppose the most potent

to arrest my imagination, is actually the least: for what is

not connected with her to me? and what does not recall

her? I cannot look down to this floor, but her features are

shaped in the flags! In every cloud, in every tree - filling

the air at night, and caught by glimpses in every object by

day - I am surrounded with her image! (p.517)insanity w

He is desperately in love and means to marry

her.’(p.87)madness e

He was wishing to get the better of his attachment to

herself, she just recovering from her mania for Mr. Elton. (p.510)madness e

The examples of the LOVE IS RAPTURE/ A HIGH metaphor:

if looks

have language, the merest idiot might have guessed I was

over head and ears: she understood me at last, and looked

a return (p.7)fire, insanity, rapture w

She

supported him calmly, in appearance; and he fixed on her

features his raised eyes that seemed dilating with ecstasy.(p.454)fire, a high, heat w

They were both in ecstasies.(p.64)a high e

She

was as happy as possible with the Martins in the summer(p.93)a high e

She had no doubt as to his

being less in love—but neither his agitated spirits, nor his

hurrying away, seemed like a perfect cure; and she was (p.480)a high, container

The examples of the THE OBJECT OF LOVE IS A DEITY metaphor:

She is a complete angel. Look at her. Is not she an

angel in every gesture? Observe the turn of her throat. (p.736)the object of love is a deity e

The examples of the LOVE IS BLIND(NESS) metaphor:

’I love the ground under his feet, and the air over his

head, and everything he touches, and every word he says.(p.123)blind,insanity w

He’s always, always in

my mind: not as a pleasure, any more than I am always a

pleasure to myself, but as my own being.(p.130)blind, insanity, unity of parts w

Emma,

your infatuation about that girl blinds you. What are(p.90)blind

Dear Harriet!—I would not change

you for the clearest-headed, longest-sighted, best-judging

female breathing. Oh! the coldness of a Jane Fairfax!— (p.407)blind

The examples of the LOVE IS A CONTAINER metaphor:

She had no doubt as to his

being less in love—but neither his agitated spirits, nor his

hurrying away, seemed like a perfect cure; and she was (p.480)a high, container e

She was quite convinced

of Mr. Elton’s being in the fairest way of falling in love, if

not in love already. (p.60)entity, container e

The examples of the LOVE IS AN ENTITY metaphor:

She was quite convinced

of Mr. Elton’s being in the fairest way of falling in love, if

not in love already. (p.60)entity e

this will

bring a great increase of love on each side. I should not(p.133)entity, valuable commodity e

What a strange thing love is!(p.168)entity e

The examples of the LOVE IS A GAME metaphor:

You see, Mr. Lockwood, it was easy enough to win

Mrs. Heathcliff’s heart. (p.506)game w

If it were love, it might

be simple, single, successless love on her side alone. She (p.252)game e

The examples of the LOVE IS HEAT metaphor:

She

supported him calmly, in appearance; and he fixed on her

features his raised eyes that seemed dilating with ecstasy.(p.454)fire, a high, heat w

They were both in ecstasies.(p.64)a high heat e

The examples of the LOVE IS MAGIC metaphor:

I know that such a girl as Harriet is

exactly what every man delights in—what at once

bewitches his senses and satisfies his judgment. Oh! Harriet(p.95)magic

Was it a new circumstance for a man of first-rate abilities

to be captivated by very inferior powers? (p.634)magic